It's difficult to pinpoint the origins of the "war on coal" slogan.

Industry sources have speculated that other advocates may be responsible for coming up with the phrase -- or maybe someone in the network of pro-coal grass-roots groups around Appalachia. Whoever the source is, "the war on coal," and all it implied, quickly took on a life of its own on Capitol Hill and during last year's elections.

"It became kind of the magic bullet of the campaign," said Bill Bissett, president of the Kentucky Coal Association. "It quickly communicated what everyone understood."

In other words, it became shorthand for pro-coal forces in the ongoing debate about the future of the resource and rules to cut down on its pollution.

"It became the rallying cry," Bissett said.

A quick Google search for "war on coal" yields more than 3 million results. But even though it became one of the top catch phrases of the 2012 elections, industry advocates and lobby groups are conflicted about its use and effectiveness. The slogan has an uncertain future.

Articles and pro-coal publications contain mentions about the "war on coal" or variations of the phrase -- war on Appalachian coal, for example -- going back several years.

In late 2009, the West Virginia Chamber of Commerce said, "This war against coal and domestic energy threatens our state and its citizens with increased poverty." Bill Raney, head of the West Virginia Coal Association, reportedly said at a rally, "Every coal miner in this state is under attack by EPA."

Carol Raulston, longtime spokeswoman for the National Mining Association, said she recalls the phrase becoming popular as the Obama administration cracked down on mining permits, particularly for mountaintop-removal projects, a move environmentalists welcomed.

"It was picked up by several of the elected leaders in the region when they could not get any satisfactory responses from EPA or the White House on how these permits would be resolved," Raulston said. "It took on a life of its own."

"In my view," she added, it has been used widely "because so many of the people who live in coal mining communities really felt something was happening to them, and they didn't understand why."

An additional source of resentment in coal country was President Obama's 2008 statement, before being elected, suggesting that he would make it harder for utilities to build coal-fired power plants because of new regulations. The push for greenhouse gas cap-and-trade legislation soon followed after he took office.

"The 2010 House campaigns seemed to be a real turning point," Raulston said, pointing out that individual coal companies, politicians and groups picked up the phrase in a cycle that saw huge Republican gains.

Within two years, the "war on coal" was a household phrase in many parts of the Appalachian coal fields. It was on bumper stickers and yard signs.

Politicians and conservative advocacy groups like the Heritage Foundation helped fan the flames during last year's elections. The GOP-controlled House even passed a bill called "Stop the War On Coal Act" in the weeks leading up to Election Day.

Smelling an Obama vulnerability, especially in battleground states like Virginia, Pennsylvania and particularly Ohio, Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney's campaign began using the phrase.

"Obama wages war on coal while we lose jobs to China, who is using more coal every day. Now your job is in danger," said a Romney campaign ad from September.

Changing minds

Bissett said he sometimes worries about the bellicose nature of the phrase. Raulston said the NMA doesn't use it in presentations, nor does it urge members to do so.

Bissett said of Romney's defense of coal: "Clearly his campaign said, coal is a good example of a way the Obama administration is hurting blue-collar people."

Obama's re-election gave the environmental community, which has been fighting for the United States to move away from coal, ammunition against the slogan and the message behind it.

John Walke, air director at the Natural Resources Defense Council, said in a recent interview that the "war on coal" message "didn't catch fire during the election." He called it a "fairy tale" that "failed to capture the attention of voters."

For the coal lobby, the 2012 elections weren't a total loss. The coal industry helped Kentucky Rep. Andy Barr (R) unseat longtime Rep. Ben Chandler (D). The pro-coal message also helped win re-election for Rep. Bill Johnson (R-Ohio) in a tough race. And it added to Obama's deep unpopularity in West Virginia and most of the rest of Appalachia. According to National Journal this week, Obama in November won 30 of the 421 counties covered by the Appalachian Regional Commission. In 1976, Jimmy Carter won 295 of those 421 counties.

Still, there is a division within coal's forces over the use of "war on coal" and whether they should deploy it in upcoming elections. Bissett doesn't think it had much traction in urban areas.

"I have some in my membership who think it should continue to be the mantra" of the industry's pro-coal message, he said, adding that others have spoken against it.

"We have to ask ourselves," said Bissett, "what minds are we looking to change and will the message work? I think we're kind of taking a step back."

One coal advocate suggested that the term is getting old and overused. Raulston said, "We clearly believe there are positive messages about coal's abundance, affordability, reliability that speak more directly to consumers of coal-based electricity."

Rep. Ed Whitfield (R-Ky.), chairman of the House Energy and Power Subcommittee, said the pro-coal message from House boosters would likely not top the rhetoric during the previous Congress, when lawmakers were constantly battling actions by EPA and other agencies.

"What we're going to be focused on is the ability for America to be energy independent, with the new discoveries in oil and natural gas. We have a 250-year supply of coal," Whitfield said.

"I'm hoping we can find some areas of agreement to move forward," he added, "because it's not often that you have an opportunity to become energy independent, and you have to take advantage of that."

But the "war on coal" slogan is not going away. News articles in recent weeks, including one from The Economist magazine, have mentioned it. A recent news release from the House Energy and Commerce Committee was headlined, "War on Coal Claims More Casualties."

Coal's allies on Capitol Hill and in lobbying circles say the rhetoric will likely depend on what the White House does in the coming months.

Reporter Jean Chemnick contributed.